Interdisciplinaria, 2019, 36, 1, 23-32
Influence of psychosocial factors on self-efficacy
The influence of self-perceived health status, social
support and depression on self-efficacy among Brazilian elderly people
La influencia del
estado de salud autopercibido, el apoyo social y la
depresión en la autoeficacia de ancianos brasileños
Ana Luisa Patrao*, Vicente Paulo Alves** and Tiago Sousa Neiva***
*PhD in Health Psychology. Visiting Professor in
Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia.
E-mail: luisa.patrao@ufba.br
**PhDin Science of
Religion. Coordinator of the Post-Graduate Program in Gerontology, Catholic
University
of Brasilia. E-mail: tutorvicente@ucb.br
***Master in Gerontology. Doctor of Family and Community Medicine in
Department of Health (Secretaria de
Saude) of the Federal District. E-mail: tiagoneiv@gmail.com
Granja do Torto, Brasilia, Distrito Federal (DF), Brasil.
El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar los predictores psicosociales de la autoeficacia general en una muestra de ancianos brasileños. La autoeficacia ha sido reportada como una variable de gran importancia para la salud de las personas mayores. Entre las personas mayores, los niveles más altos de autoeficacia se asocian con menor incapacidad, malestar psicológico, síntomas depresivos, buena salud percibida y mayor adaptación al dolor. En este estudio participaron 144 pacientes de la Unidad Básica de Salud en Granja do Torto (Brasilia, Brasil). La muestra era consecutiva. Los datos fueron recogidos a través de un cuestionario que incluyó preguntas sociodemográficas (color, edad, educación, estado civil, situación laboral y número de personas de otras generaciones con las que mora) y escalas para las dimensiones psicosociales estudiadas (estado de salud autopercibido, apoyo social percibido, depresión y autoeficacia general). La muestra estaba constituida mayorita- riamente por mujeres (58.3%). La edad promedio era de 69.3 años (SD= 6.61), con edades que oscilaban entre 60 y 89 años. La mayoría eran blancos y morenos, con menos de 8 años de educación; tenían un compañero estable, vivían con familiares de otra generación y no trabajaban (estaban jubilados). El estado de salud auto- percibido, el apoyo social percibido y la depresión explicaron el 37.2% de la varianza (AF (3, 140)= 29.20, p= .000). Los participantes que tenían un nivel más alto de apoyo social percibido (P= .25), un estado de salud autopercibido positivo (P= .30) y niveles más bajos de depresión (P= -.28) tenían niveles más altos de autoeficacia general. Es muy importante promover acciones comunitarias que ayuden a las personas mayores a disminuir los niveles de depresión y a aumentar los niveles de estado de salud auto- percibido y el apoyo social percibido. Por lo tanto, se contribuirá al aumento de la autoefica- cia en las personas mayores, una variable extremadamente importante en la salud y el bienestar de esta población específica.
Palabras clave: Autoeficacia; Predictores psico- sociales; Personas mayores.
The
aim of this study was to identify the psychosocial predictors of general
self-efficacy in a sample of Brazilian elderly people. Self-efficacy has been
reported as a variable of great importance for elderly people’s health. Among
them, higher self-efficacy levels are associated with lower inability,
psychological distress, depressive symptoms, good perceived health and higher
pain adjustment. One hundred and forty- four patients participated in this
study. They were all patients of the Health Basic Unit at Granja do Torto (Brasilia, Brazil). The sample is consecutive. The
data were collected through a questionnaire that included sociodemographic questions
(colour, age, education, marital status, occupational
situation and number of people of other generations that you live with) and
scales for the studied psychosocial dimensions (self- perceived health status,
social support, depression, and general self-efficacy). The sample is mostly
(58.3%) constituted by women. The average age is 69.3 years old (SD= 6.61),
with participants being from 60 to 89 years old. The majority were white and
brown people, with less than 8 years of education; they have a stable partner,
live with family members of another generation, and do not work (they are
retired). Self-perceived health status, social support and depression explained
37.2% of variance (AF(3, 140)= 29.20, p= .000). The participants who had a higher level of
perceived social support (P= .25), a positive self-perceived health status (P=
.30) and lower levels of depression (P= -.28) had higher levels of general
self-efficacy. Future interventions under the scope of health promotion in
elderly people must consider these determinants in order to increase their
efficacy. It is very important to promote community actions that help elderly
people to decrease depression levels and increase levels of positive self-perceived
health status and perceived social support. Thus, we will contribute to
self-efficacy increase in elderly people, an extremely important variable in
health and well-being among this specific population.
Keywords:
Self-efficacy; Psychosocial Predictors; Elderly People.
The
self-efficacy concept was introduced by Bandura and it is the belief that it
is possible to control our own motivation, thinking processes, emotional
states, and behavior patterns (Bandura, 1994; 1997). This construct defines
that people tend to avoid the situations that they think surpass their capabilities
and to face the ones they think they are capable of managing (Ribeiro, 1995).
Thereby, the higher the efficacy perception, the more persistent is the effort
towards a specific behavior (Costa & Leal, 2005). Self-efficacy can be
understood as a global and stable belief of being capable of controlling
certain environmental challenges (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 2000). That is,
the authors agree that self-efficacy is an individual belief in one’s own
abilities and competencies to deal with external demands.
Many
studies revealed that self-efficacy is associated with many health issues, namely
anxiety, neuroticism, depression (Mu- ris, 2002),
traumatic injuries recover (Bun- ketorp et al., 2006;
Wong, Chan & Chair,
2010) , response types in patients with
cancer (Luszczynska, Gutierrez-Dona, &
Schwarzer, 2005; Luszczynska, Mohamed, &
Schwarzer, 2005), glycemic control (Gao et al., 2013), life quality perception
(Luszczynska, Gutierrez-Dona & Schwarzer, 2005),
psychosocial adjustment to chronic disease (Dahlbeck & Lightsey, 2008),
oral health care (Souza, Silva & Galvao, 2002),
acquisition of many healthy habits (healthy eating, physical exercise practice,
smoking interruption and decrease of alcohol consumption) (Cardoso, 2006), and
adoption of safe sexual behavior (Pallonen, Williams,
Timpson, Bowen & Ross, 2008; Rogado & Leal,
2000).
Related
specifically to the elderly, many studies point to the same direction: higher
self-efficacy levels are associated with lower inability, psychological
distress, depressive symptoms, the decrease of basic and instrumental
activities in daily life, good perceived health, higher pain adjustment, and
more expended effort in required activities, personal adjustment and the
capability of confrontation resources mobilization (Ra- belo
& Cardoso, 2007). In the gerontological population, self-efficacy still
supports the maintenance of healthy behaviors (ex: physical activity practice,
good nutrition) (McAuley et al., 2011; Sant'Anna da
Silva & Laurent, 2010), personal perspective of longevity (Sant'Anna da Silva & Laurent,
2010)
, fear of falling (Li et al., 2002), and the practice of group health
promoting activities (Kono et al., 2004).
According
to Bandura (2004), positive cognitive re-evaluations that focus on one’s own
life aspects and that are personally controllable can increase the perceived
efficacy, which activates many adaptive processes in facing health chronic
conditions. This process is essential in the elderly - their age is when the
number of chronic diseases increases and aggravates. The scientific literature
has made a strong association between general self-efficacy and other
psychosocial factors. Examples of these dimensions are the perceived social
support (Bonsaksen, Lerdal,
& Fagermoen, 2012; Warner et al.,
2011) , anxiety (Tahmassian & Moghadam,
2011)
, the disease perception and psychological suffering (Connolly et al.,
2014), and depression (Dilorio et al., 2006; Tahmassian & Moghadam, 2011; Qian & Yuan,
2012) . In this context, the goal of this
paper is to identify the psychosocial predictors in general self-efficacy in
elderly patients of a Brazilian Health Basic Unit. Psychosocial predictors are
related to psychological, social, cognitive, psychopathological and mental health
factors (among the variables under study) that may have a predictive value in
self-efficacy.
One hundred
and forty-four patients participated in this study. They were all patients of
the Health Basic Unit at Granja do Torto (Brasilia,
Brazil), with an average age of 69.3 years (SD= 6.61). The sample is
consecutive.
Socio-demographic characteristics.
Colour. It was asked directly for an open
response, and subsequently, categorized into “white”, “pardo”
(“browns” or “of mixed color”), “Asian” and “indigenous”.
Age. It was asked directly and for an open response
and was subsequently categorized (60-69 years-old, 70-79 years-old, 80-89
years-old).
Education. It was collected through selfreport with the question “What is your level of
education?” The answer options were: none, 1-3 years, 4-7 years, 8 or more years.It was then categorized in a dichotomous form (less
than 8 years of education, 8 years of education or more).
Marital status. It was assessed through the question
“What is your marital status?” The answer options were: single, married,
divorced, in stable union, separated and widowed. It was then categorized in a
dichotomous form (with or without a partner).
Occupational situation. It was collected through the
questions “Do you work?” and “Are you retired?” It was later categorized in a
dichotomous form (active or inactive).
Number of people of other
generations that you live with. The question was “Who do you live with?”. It
was then dichotomized (1 generation, and 2 or more generations).
Psychosocial variables (possible predictors).
Social Support. It was assessed by 24 items of the
translated and adapted version of the original Social Provisions Scale (Cu- trona & Russell, 1987). The items response format was a
4-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. Some
of the items are “if something bad happened to me, I could not count on anyone’s
help” or “I feel responsible for another person’s well-being”. In this sample,
the Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was .81.
Depression. It was assessed by the Center for
Epidemiological Studies Depression
Scale (CES-D) (Randloff,
1977) (Brazilian version by Silveira & Jorge, 1998). This instrument has
20 items and the answers are quoted from 0 to 3 (from rarely or never to most
of the time or all the time), with 4 items in reverse quotation. Some examples
of the items are “I felt scared” and “I felt happy”. The Cronbach’s alpha of
the scale was .86.
Self-perceived health status. It was assessed by the
question ”How do you evaluate your health condition?” The answer options were
“very bad”, “bad”, “reasonable”, “good” and “very good”.
General Self-Efficacy. It was evaluated through the
General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1993) from the
Brazilian version by Sbicigo, Teixeira, Dias and Dell’Aglio (2012). The scale has 10 items and the answers
are quoted from 1 to 4 in a Likert scale (1= strongly disagree and 5= strongly
agree). Some of the items are: “I have confidence to do well in unexpected situations”
and “I can usually face any adversity”. The Cronbach’s alpha of the scale was
0.90.
The sample was recruited using the medical records on
the Basic Health Unit of Granja do Torto (Brasilia,
Brazil) according to the following inclusion criteria: (1) being 60 years old
or older, and (2) being psychologically capable of responding to the interview
questionnaire. Properly trained interviewers (Medicine students from Univer- sidade Católica de Brasilia) administered the
questionnaire. The interviews took place at the participants’ houses after
being approached on the Basic Health Unit by the responsible doctor and having
agreed to participate in the research. All the participants knew the purpose
of the investigation. The data confidentiality as well as the volunteer
participation in the research were properly clarified. The patients who agreed
to participate in the research read and signed the free informed consent form.
Additionally, the research was authorized by the Ethics Committee of Universidade Católica de Brasilia and by Granja do Torto’s City Hall.
In relation to sample characterization, the data were
obtained from descriptive statistics, like distribution and frequency analyses. First, in order to select which variables should be included in the
regression analyses, we conducted Spearman’s correlation
coefficients between psychosocial variables and self-efficacy. Subsequently,
the linear regression analyses were conducted to identify the general
self-efficacy predictors. The data were analyzed by using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences, version 18.0. (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, Illinois,
USA).
This research sample had a total of 144 elderly
patients who were patients at the Health Basic Unit at Granja do Torto (Brasilia, Brazil). As shown on Table 1, the sample
is mostly (58.3%) constituted by women. The average age is 69.3 years old
(SD=6.61), with participants being from 60 to 89 years old. The majority were
white and brown people, with less than 8 years of education; they have a
stable partner, live with family members of another generation, and do not work
(they are retired). These characteristics can be observed on Table 1 with more
details, according to gender.
Psychological predictors
of general self-efficacy
Table 2
shows the correlations among the psychosocial variables and theself-efficacy.
All correlations are significant (prange=
.001 to < .001) and in the expected direction
(rrange=348 to -.408).
Baled on these correlations results, the
psychosocial variables were selected to be included in the regression
analysis.
The results of the linear
regression analyses for psychosocial variables as predictors of self-efficacy
are presented in Table 3. These variables (self-perceived health status, social
support and depression) explained 37.2% of variance (aF(3, 140)= 29.20, p =.000). The participants who had a
higher level of perceived social support (P = .25), a positive self-perceived
health status (p = .30) and lower levels of depression (P = -.28) had higher
levels of general self-efficacy.
This
article aimed to identify the psychosocial predictors in general self-efficacy
in the Brazilian elderly. The results show that- self-perceived health status,
perceived social support and depression are significantly associated with
general self-efficacy on the studied sample. The more positive the self- perceived
health status, the bigger the levels of perceived social support, and the lower
the levels of depression, the higher are the levels of general self-efficacy in
elderly patients who were analyzed at the Health Basic Unit. There is no
association between socio-demographic variables (colour,
age, marital status, etc.) and self-efficacy.
Related to
the influence of self-perceived health status in general self-efficacy, we did
not find studies that could analyze this relation directly, but some of them do
that indirectly. For example, the study by Connolly et al. (2014) showed that one of the factors more associated with self-efficacy
in ill people who are recovering from severe traumas was the disease
perception. In other words, a better perception of the real characteristics of
the disease are positively associated with higher levels of self-efficacy in
those sick people. That means that in some way this disease perception
integrates a health status perception. We believe that these results make sense,
because whether the self-efficacy is a global and stable belief of being
capable of controlling certain environmental challenges (Schwarzerand
Jerusalem, 2000), it is understandable that this variable is favoured and even potentialized by a better perception of
the sickness and health status.
Regarding the association between perceived social
support and self-efficacy, the results are congruent to the scientific literature.
Other studies,for example the one by Bonsaksen, Lerdal and Fagermoen (2012), showed that social support is directly
associated with self-efficacy in adults with chronic diseases. The study by
Warner et al. (2011) about the relation between self-efficacy and the
perceived social support in elderly people found that there is a synergy
between these two variables: The ones with a low level of self-efficacy had
less probability of being active, even when having high levels of social
support. Similarly, the elderly with a low level of perceived social support
had a strong probability of being inactive, even with high levels of self-efficacy.
In other words, the results of this study reveal that these two cognitive
dimensions interact, influence each other, and work together in order to
promote activeness on elderly people. These results raise awareness to the
need of evaluating this interaction regarding other health behaviors, having
in mind the promotion of integral health in elderly people.
The evidence of depression as a
predictor of self-efficacy has been reported in many studies and in different
scopes and samples, namely related to academic performance (Tahmassian
& Moghadam, 2011), cancer experiencing (Qian & Yuan, 2012), epilepsy
medical conditions (Dilorio et al., 2006), among
others. For example, the results of the study by Qian and Yuan (2012) revealed
that the patients with cancer who had milddepression, better physical function and higher social support
were those who presented the best level of self-efficacy related to self-care.
Depression was the factor which had the most influence in this model, compared
to self-efficacy predictors. The study by Dilorio et
al. (2006) also revealed that the depression symptoms were the main predictors
of self-efficacy in people with epilepsy. If self-efficacy is related to the
individual belief in their capabilities to perform a specific action and
achieve the wanted result (Bandura,1997), it is understood that the elderly
who are not depressed are the ones who can better potentialize these beliefs
in their own capabilities.
This study
has some limitations, namely the possible memory bias related to depression,
like when the elderly were asked to remember events of the last week. We also
consider important the development of longitudinal studies in order to better
understand the evolution of general self-efficacy in elderly people.
Additionally, it would be relevant to develop similar researches with larger
samples. That was not possible in this study because the patients who accepted
to participate are all the ones inside the community (Granja do Torto, Brasília, Brazil).
Extending
the research to other nearby contexts would be a good future option. In this
case it was not possible due to financial and logistic constraints which the
study could not endure. Nevertheless, this is a pioneer study that tries to
understand the psychosocial predictors of general self-efficacy in the
Brazilian elderly population.
Psychosocial factors, such as self-perceived health
status, perceived social support, and depression are malleable and can be
changed by treatment (e.g. depression) or educational and skills-building
interventions (e.g. perceived social support). Therefore, it is very important
to promote community actions that help elderly people to decrease depression
levels and increase levels of positive self-perceived health status and perceived
social support. Thus, we will contribute to self-efficacy increase in elderly
people, an extremely important variable in health and well-being among this
specific population.
Table 1
Characterization
of the sample according sociodemographic characteristics and sex (N=144)
Table 2.
Spearman correlation coefficients between psychosocial variables and
outcome variable (N=144)
Table 3.
Linear regression results with self-perceived health status, perceived
social support and depression as predictors of general self-efficacy (N=144).
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Received: April 24, 2017 Accepted: March 11, 2019
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